POLITICAL SYSTEM

chief of state: President ZAYID bin Sultan Al Nuhayyan (since 2 December 1971),
ruler of Abu Zaby (Abu Dhabi) (since 6 August 1966)

Vice President MAKTUM bin Rashid al-Maktum (since 8 October 1990)

Since the establishment of the Federation in 1971, the seven emirates that comprise the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have forged a distinct national identity through consolidation of their federal status and now enjoy an enviable degree of political stability. The UAE's political system, which is a unique combination of the traditional and the modern, has underpinned this political success, enabling the country to develop a modern administrative structure while, at th same time, ensuring that the best of the traditions of the past are maintained, adapted and preserved.

Following the British termination of their agreements with the Trucial States the rulers of the seven emirates established a federal state officially entitled Dawlat al Imarat al Arabiyya al Muttahida (State of the United Arab Emirates).

The philosophy behind the UAE was explained in a statement which was released on 2 December 1971 as the new state was formally established:

The United Arab Emirates has been established as an independent state, possessing sovereignty. It is part of the greater Arab nation. Its aim is to maintain its independence, its sovereignty, its security and its stability, in defence against any attack on its entity or on the entity of any of its member Emirates. It also seeks to protect the freedoms and rights of its people and to achieve trustworthy co-operation between the Emirates for the common good. Among its aims, in addition to the purposes above described, is to work for the sake of the progress of the country in all fields for the sake of providing a better life for its citizens, to give assistance and support to Arab causes and interests, and to support the charter of the United Nations and international morals.

Each of the component emirates of the federation already had its own existing institutions of government and, to provide for the effective governing of the new state, the rulers agreed to draw up a provisional Constitution specifying the powers which were to be allocated to new federal institutions, all others remaining the preorgative of the individual emirates.

Assigned to the federal authorities, under Articles 120 and 121 of the Constitution, were the areas of responsibility for foreign affairs, security and defence, nationality and immigration issues, education, public health currency, postal, telephone and other communictions services, air traffic control and licensing of aircraft, in addition to a number of other topics specifically prescribed, including labour relations, banking, delimitation of territorial waters and extradition of criminals.

In paralle, the Constitution also stated in Article 116 that 'the Emirates shall exercise all powers not assigned to the federation by this Constitution'. This was reaffirmed in Article 122, which stated that 'the Emirates shall have jurisdiction in all matters not assigned to the exclusive jurisdiction of the federation, in accordance with the provision of the preceding two Articles'.

The new federal system of government included a Supreme Council, a Cabinet, or Council of Ministers, a parliamentary body, the Federal National Council, and an independent judiciary, at the apex of which is the Federal Supreme Court.

In a spirit of consensus and collaboration, the rulers of the seven emirates agreed during the process of federation that each of them would be a member of a Supreme Council, the top policy-making body in the new state. They agreed also that they would elect a President and a Vice-President from amongst their number, to serve for a five-year term of office. The Ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, was elected as the first President, a post to which he has been re-elected at successive five-yearly intervals, whilt the Ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, was elected as first Vice-President, a post he continued to hold until his death in 1990, at which point his eldest son and their, Seikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, was elected to succeed him.
 
 

SUPREME COUNCIL MEMBERS

HH President Sheikh Zayed bin Suyltan Al Nahyan, Ruler of Abu Dhabi

HH Vice-President and Prime Minister Seikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Ruler of Dubai

HH Dr Seikh Sultan bin Mohammed Al  Qasimi, Ruler of Sharjah

HH Seikh Saqr bin Mohammed Al Qasimi, Ruler of Ras al-Khaimah

HH Seikh Rashid bin Ahmed Al Mu'alla, Ruler of Umm al-Qaiwain

HH Sheikh Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi, Ruler of Ajman

HH Sheikh Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi, Ruler of Fujairah

Crown Princes and Deputies of the Rulers

HH Sheikh Khalifa bn Zayed Al Nahyan, Croiwn Price of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, Chairman of the Executive Council of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi

HE Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Deputy Ruler of Dhabi, Minister of Finance and Industry

General HE Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maltoum, Crown Prie of Dubai and Minister of Defence

HE Seikh Sultan bin Mohammed Al Qasimi, Crown Prince and Deputy Ruler of Sharjah

HE Sheikh Khalid bin Saqr Al Qasimi, Crown Prince and Deputy Ruler of Ras al-Khaimah

HE Sheikh Saud bin Rashid Al Mu'alla, Crown Prince of Umm al-Qaiwain

HE Sheikh Ammar bin Humaid Al Nuaimi, Crown Prince of Ajman

HE Sheikh Ahmed bin Sultan Al Qasimi, Deputy Ruler of Sharjah

HE Sheikh Hamad bin Saif Al Sharqi, Deputy Ruler of Fujairah

HE Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi, Deputy Ruler of Ras al-Khaimah
 

The Federal Supreme Council is vested with legislative as well as executive powers. It ratifies federal laws and decrees, plans general policy, approves the nomination of the Prime Minister and accepts his registration. It also relieves him from his post upon the recommendation of the President. The Supreme Council elects the President and his deputy for five-years terms; both may be re-elected.

At an historic meeting on 20 May 1996 the Federal Supreme Council approved a draft amendment to the country's provisional Constitution, making it the permanent Constitution of the UAE. The amendment also named Abu Dhabi as the capital of the state.

The Council of Ministers or Cabinet, described in the Constitution as 'the executive authority' for the federation, includes the usual complement of ministerial portfolios, and is headed by a Prime Minister, chosen by President in consultation with his colleagues on the Supreme Council. The Prime Minister, currently the Vice-President (although this has not always been the case), then selects the minters, who may be drawn from any of the federation's component emirates, although, naturally, the more populous emirates have generally provided more members of each Cabinet.

The current 21-member Cabinet was appointed on 25 March 1997 under the terms of Decree No. 67 of 1997 and according to the proposal of Vice-President HH Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, who was requested by the President to form a new Government.
 
 

MEMBERS OF THE CABINET
 

Prime Minister: Vice-President HH Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum

Deputy Prime Minister: Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan

Minister of Finance and Industry: Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum

Minister of Defence: Gen. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum

Minister of State for Foreign Affairs: Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan

Minister of Information and Culture: Sheikh Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan

Minister of Planning: Sheikh Humaid bin Ahmed Al Mu'alla

Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research: Sheikh Nahyan bin Mubarak Al Nahyan

Minister of Economy and Commerce: Sheikh Fahim bin Sultan Al Qasimi

Minister of State for Supreme and Council Affairs: Sheikh Majed bin Saeed Al Nuaimi

Minister of Foreign Affairs: Rashid Abdullah Al Nuaimi

Minister of Interior: Lt. Gen. Dr Mohammed Saeed Al Badi

Minister of Health: Hamad Abdul Rahman Al Madfa

Minister of Electricity and Water: Humaid bin Nasir Al Owais

Minister of State for Cabinet Affairs: Saeed Khalfan Al Ghaith

Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries: Saeed Mohammed Al Ragabani

Minister of Communications: Ahmed Humaid Al Tayer

Minister of Public Works and Housing: Rakad bin Salem Al Rakad

Minister of Petroleum and MIneral Resources: Obeid bin Saif Al Nassiri

Minister of Education and Youth: Dr Abdul Aziz Al Sharhan

Minister of Justice, Islamic Affairs and Awqaf: Mohammed Nukhaira Al Dhahiri

Ministe of Labour and Social Affairs: Mattar Humaid Al Tayer

Minister of State for Financial and Industrial Affairs: Dr Mohammed Khalfan bin Kharbash.

The Director General of the President's Office, Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, also has ministerial status.
 
 

FEDERAL NATIONAL COUNCIL

The Federal National Council (FNC) has 40 members drawn from the emirtes on the basis of their population, with eight for each of Abu Dhabi and Dubai, six each for Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah, and four each for Fujairah, Umm al-Qaiwain and Ajman. The selection of representative members is left to the discretion of each emirate and the members' legislative term is deemed to be two calendar years.

Day-to-day operation of the FNC is governed by standing orders based on the provisions of Article 85 of the Constitution. These orders were first issued in 1972 and subsequently amended by Federal Decree No. 97 of 1997.

The FNC plays an important role in serving the people and the nation and consolidating the principles of shura (consultation) in the country. Presided over by a speaker, or either of two deputy speakers, elected from amongst its members, the FNC has both a legislative and supervisory role under the Constitution. This means that it is responsible for examining, and, if it so requires, amending, all proposed federal legislation, and is empowered to summon and to question any federal minister regarding ministry performance. One of the main duties of the FNC is to discuss the annual budget. Specialised sub-committees and a Research and Studies Unit have been formed to assist FNC members to cope with the increasing demands of modern government.

Since its inception the council has been successively chaired by the following Speakers:

Thani bin Abdulla

Taryam bin Omran Taryam

Hilal bin Ahmed bin Lootah

Al-Hai bin Abdullah Al Muhairbi

Mohammed Khalifa Al Habtoor

At an international level, the FNC is a member of the International Parliamentary Union (IPU), as well as the Arab Parliamentary Union (APU) and participates actively in these bodies.
 
 

FEDERAL JUDICIARY

The federal judiciary, whose total independence is guaranteed under the Constitution, includes the Federal Supreme Court and Courts of First Instance. The Federal Supreme Court consists of five judges appointed by the Supreme Council of Rulers. The judges decide on the constitutionality of federal laws and arbitrate on intra-emirate disputes and disputes between the Federal Government and the emirates.
 
 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Parallel to, and, on occasion, interlocking with, the federal institutions, each of the seven emirtes also has its own local government. Although all have expanded significantly as a result of the country's growth over the last 29 years, these differ in size and complexity from emirate to emirate, depending on a variety of factors such as population, area, and degree of development.

Thus the largest and most populous emirate, Abu Dhabi, has its own central governing organ, the Executive Council, chaired by the Crown Prince, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed al Nahyan. The Eastern and Western Regions are headed by an official with the title of Ruler's Representative. There is also a Ruler's Representative on the important oil terminal island of Das.

The main cities, Abu Dhabi and Al Ain, the latter also the capital of the Eastern Region, are administered by municipalities, each of which has a nominated municipal council, while the National Consultative Council, chaired by a Speaker, and with 60 members selectd from among the emirate's main tribes and families, undertakes a role similar to that of the FNC on a country-wide level, questioning officials and examining and endorsing local legislation. It is also a source of vocal suggestion for the introduction or revision of federal legislation.

Administration in the emirate is implemneted by a number of local departments, covering topics such as public works, finance, customs and management. Some have a responsibility for the whole of the emirate, although in certain spheres there are also departments covering only the Eastern Region.

A similar patern of municipalities and departments can be found in each of the other emirates, while Sharjah, with its three enclaves on the country's east coast, has also adopted the practice of devolving some authority on a local basis, with branches of the Sharjah Emiri Diwan (Court), headed by deputy chairmen, in both Kalba and Khor Fakkan. Sharjah has also created an Executive Council to cover the whole emirate.

In smaller or more remote settlements, the ruler and government of each emirate may choose a local representative, an emir or wali, to act as a conduit through which the concerns of inhabitants may be directed to government. In most cases, these are the leading local tribal figures, whose influence and authority derive both from their fellow tribesmen and from the confidence placed in them by the ruler, an example of the way in which local leaders within the traditional system have become involved with, and lend legitimacy to, the new structures of government.
 
 

FEDERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The powers of the various federal institutions and their relationship with the separte institutions in each emirate, laid down in the Constitution, have evolved and changed since the establishment of the state. Under the terms of the Constitution, rulers may, if they wish, relinquish certain areas of authority, prescribed as being the responsibility of individual emirates, to the Federal Government on significant such decision being that to unify the armed forces in the mid-1970s. The 1971 Constitution also permitted each emirate to retain, or to take up, membership in the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), although none have done so; the only emirate to be a member in 1971, Abu Dhabi, having chosen to relinquish its memberships in fvour of the federation.

In line with the dramatic social and economic development that has taken place since the foundation of the state, the organs of government, both federal and local, have also developed impressively, and their influence now affects almost all aspects of life, for both UAE itizens and expatriates. As with other relatively young states, new institutions that were created for the firs time have derived their legitimacy and status from the extent of their activities and achievements, and from acknowledgement and appreciation of their role by the people.

The relationship between the new systems of government, federal and local, has itself evolved in a highly constructive manner. As the smaller emirates have benefited from significant development in terms of, for example, education and vocational training, so they have been able to find the personnel to extend the variety of services (e.g. tourism), provided by their own local governments which had once been handled on their behalf by federal institutions. AT the same time, in other areas, such as the judiciary, there has been an evolving trend towards a further voluntary relinquishment of local authority to the federal institutions. These new systems of government have not, however, replaced the traditional forms which coexist and evolve alongside them.
 
 

TRADITIONAL GOVERNMENT
 

Traditionally, the ruler of an emirte, the sheikh, was the leader of the most powerful, though not necessarily the most populous, tribe, while each individual tribe, and often its various sub-sections, also generally had a chief or sheikh. Such rulers and chiefs maintained their authority only insofar as they were able to retain the loyalty and support of their people, in essence a form of direct democrary, though without the paraphernalia of western forms of suffrage. Part of that democracy was the unwritten but strong principle that the people should have free access to their sheikh, and that he should hold a frequent and open majlis, or council, in which his fellow tribesmen could voice their opinions.

Such a direct democracy, of course, may be ideally suited to small and relatively uncomplicated societies, but becomes steadily more difficult to maintain as populations grow, while the increasing sophistication of government administration means that on a day to day basis many of the inhabitants of the emirates how find it more appropriate to deal directly with these institutions on most matters, rather than to seek to meet directly with their ruler or sheikh.

Nevertheless, a fascinating aspect of life in the UAE today, and one that is essential to an understanding of its political system, is the way in which the institutions of the majlis has continued to maintain its relevance. In large emirates, not only the ruler, but also a number of other senior members of his family, continue to hold open majlises (or majalis), in which participants may raise for a son or daughter to go abroad, to more weighty subjects such as the impact of large-scale foreign immigration upon society or complaints about perceived flaws in the practices of various ministries and departments.

In smaller emirtes, the majlis of the ruler himself, or of the crown prince or deputy ruler, remain the main focus. The Ruler of Fujairah, for example, holds an open majlis at least once a week (daily during the Muslim holy fasting month of Ramadan), which may be attended by both citizens and expatriates. To these majlises come traditionally-minded tribesmen who may have waited several months for the opportunity to discuss with their ruler directly, rather than choose to pursue their requests or complaints through a modern government structure.

In modern society, of course, as President Sheikh Zayed himself has commented, it is naturally easier for a ruler to go to meet his people than for them to come to meet him. Sheikh Zayed frequently travels within the UAE, providing opportunities for him to meet with citizens away from the formal surroundings of an office or palace. During his regular inspection tours of projects, he also takes pains to ensure that citizens living nearby are guaranteed easy access to him.

Just as the modern institutions have developed in response to public need and demand, however, so the traditional forms of tribal administration have adapted. With many relatively routine matters now being dealt with by the modern institutions, so the traditional ones, like the majlis, have been able to focus on more complex issues rather than on the routine matters with which they were once heavily involved.

In the majlises, for example, it is possible to hear detailed, and often heated, discussions between sheikhs and other citizens on questions such as the policy that should be adopted towards the evolution of the machinery of government, or the nature or relations with neighbouring countries. On matters more directly affecting the individual, such as the highly relevant topic of unemployment among young UAE graduates, debates often tend to begin in the majlises, where discussion can be fast and furious, before a consensus approach evolves that is subsequently reflected in changes in government policy.

Through such means, the well-tested methods of government in the United Arab Emirates have been able to retain both their essential relevance and unique vitality, and they continue to play an important, although often unpublicised, role in the evolution of the state today.
 

A Balance Approach

When the rulers of the seven emirates met 29 years ago to agree on the forms of government for their new federal state, they chose deliberately not simply to copy from others. They chose, instead, tow work towards a society that would offer the best of modern administration, while at the same time retaining the traditional forms of government, that, with their inherent commitment to consensus, discussion and direct democracy, offered the best features of the past.

With the benefit of hindsight, it is evident that they made the correct choice, for, despite the massive economic growth and the social dislocation caused by an explosion in the population, the state has enjoyed political stability. During the last few decades there have been numerous attempts to create federal states, both in the Arab world and elsewhere. The UAE is the only one in the Arab world to have stood the test of time.